University of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421The Social Constitution of Self for FichteThe Social Constitution of Self for Fichte1221268010.22034/jpiut.2021.40769.2618FAArashAbazariAssistant Professor, philosophy of science, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran. İranJournal Article20200716What I call in this paper “the sociality of subjectivity thesis” lies at the very center of what is now called “Continental philosophy”. According to this thesis, the subject is necessarily socially constituted. In other words, it is not the case that there are first some isolated subjects, who then get into relation with each other; rather, the subjects from the beginning are formed through their interrelation. The first philosopher who systematically argued for this thesis is Johann Gottlieb Fichte. In this paper, I reconstruct Fichte’s argument, as it appears in his 1796 <em>Foundations of Natural Right</em>. The central idea of this reconstruction is the following: for Fichte, the subject can regard herself as the genuine author of her actions, only when she presupposes that there are other subjects who can ascribe those actions to her. That is, the activity of self-ascription, which constitutes the subject, is only possible with the presupposition that there are other subjects. What I call in this paper “the sociality of subjectivity thesis” lies at the very center of what is now called “Continental philosophy”. According to this thesis, the subject is necessarily socially constituted. In other words, it is not the case that there are first some isolated subjects, who then get into relation with each other; rather, the subjects from the beginning are formed through their interrelation. The first philosopher who systematically argued for this thesis is Johann Gottlieb Fichte. In this paper, I reconstruct Fichte’s argument, as it appears in his 1796 <em>Foundations of Natural Right</em>. The central idea of this reconstruction is the following: for Fichte, the subject can regard herself as the genuine author of her actions, only when she presupposes that there are other subjects who can ascribe those actions to her. That is, the activity of self-ascription, which constitutes the subject, is only possible with the presupposition that there are other subjects. https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_12680_88bcdf841c927d985ddeffe53a2d9ca2.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Hume and the Problem of InductionHume and the Problem of Induction23401286010.22034/jpiut.2020.40138.2581FAZahraEsmaeiliPhD Candidate of Philosophy, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin. Iran.MohammadHakkakAssociate Professor of Philosophy, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin. Iran.Journal Article20200607The scope of this research is the study of Hume's solution for the problem of induction. The philosophers still wonder whether they could determine unobserved instances based upon similar observed ones. However, Hume didn't employ this problem directly in his books but he answered this question within the discussion of causation. According to Hume's point-of-view, the source of universals that is based on particles; is in the human spirit. The nature of human spirit, after frequently observation of successions in the past, expects to observe same succession in future. All Hume interpreters agree on everything said. But they have different opinions on whether Hume had any further theory about causation. In this paper, first a faithful to context report about causation and accordingly Induction Problem with Hume is presented and then different interpretations on Hume's causation are introduced briefly and finally each interpretation is discussed thoroughly citing its shortcomings briefly.
<br />In this paper, first a faithful to context report about causation and accordingly Induction Problem with Hume is presented and then different interpretations oh Hume's causation are introduced briefly and finally each interpretation is discussed thoroughly citing its shortcomings briefly.The scope of this research is the study of Hume's solution for the problem of induction. The philosophers still wonder whether they could determine unobserved instances based upon similar observed ones. However, Hume didn't employ this problem directly in his books but he answered this question within the discussion of causation. According to Hume's point-of-view, the source of universals that is based on particles; is in the human spirit. The nature of human spirit, after frequently observation of successions in the past, expects to observe same succession in future. All Hume interpreters agree on everything said. But they have different opinions on whether Hume had any further theory about causation. In this paper, first a faithful to context report about causation and accordingly Induction Problem with Hume is presented and then different interpretations on Hume's causation are introduced briefly and finally each interpretation is discussed thoroughly citing its shortcomings briefly.
<br />In this paper, first a faithful to context report about causation and accordingly Induction Problem with Hume is presented and then different interpretations oh Hume's causation are introduced briefly and finally each interpretation is discussed thoroughly citing its shortcomings briefly.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_12860_206310787cc7628f550679f83e152683.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Interpretation of Hegel's Preface to the Book Philosophy of Right and Examination of the Basic Components of His Political PhilosophyInterpretation of Hegel's Preface to the Book Philosophy of Right and Examination of the Basic Components of His Political Philosophy41621215610.22034/jpiut.2020.41252.2651FAMohsenBagherzadeh MeshkibafPhD of philosophy, University of Tabriz. Tabriz. Iran.Journal Article20200813The author reconstructs the preface of Hegel's philosophy of law according to the three gaps that Hegel has found in German thought and culture in such a way that not only the reason for writing the book Philosophy of Truth is clarified, but even the necessity of breaking through these gaps is explained. In the field of theoretical and practical philosophy, Hegel first struggles with subjective idealism, which believes only in the determinations of the subject and leaves the external world as unknown and does not pay attention to its internal logic, and eliminates the disconnect between subject and object. In the same relation to subjective philosophy he then confronts German nationalist movements that pursue their own profit-seeking and emotional self-sufficiency, replacing the understanding of the "is" or the actual with the arbitrary "musts" of subjective political philosophy and beliefs. In this regard, not only by its method of logic, it removes the contradiction between "subject / object" and "is / must", but also, by removing the gap between the rational and the external reality, gives external validity to the external determinations of the realization of the idea; In this way he can create a new understanding of the state that encompasses all the dialectics mentioned, and defends this state throughout the preface against the arbitrary will that leads to German nationalism and subjective philosophy. The author reconstructs the preface of Hegel's philosophy of law according to the three gaps that Hegel has found in German thought and culture in such a way that not only the reason for writing the book Philosophy of Truth is clarified, but even the necessity of breaking through these gaps is explained. In the field of theoretical and practical philosophy, Hegel first struggles with subjective idealism, which believes only in the determinations of the subject and leaves the external world as unknown and does not pay attention to its internal logic, and eliminates the disconnect between subject and object. In the same relation to subjective philosophy he then confronts German nationalist movements that pursue their own profit-seeking and emotional self-sufficiency, replacing the understanding of the "is" or the actual with the arbitrary "musts" of subjective political philosophy and beliefs. In this regard, not only by its method of logic, it removes the contradiction between "subject / object" and "is / must", but also, by removing the gap between the rational and the external reality, gives external validity to the external determinations of the realization of the idea; In this way he can create a new understanding of the state that encompasses all the dialectics mentioned, and defends this state throughout the preface against the arbitrary will that leads to German nationalism and subjective philosophy. https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_12156_209d69cf1a856952bdc65c55ccff64b0.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421About the Importance of Painting: A phenomenological reading of Iranian painting based on the approach of Steven Crowell and Paul CrowtherAbout the Importance of Painting: A phenomenological reading of Iranian painting based on the approach of Steven Crowell and Paul Crowther63821165510.22034/jpiut.2020.41619.2663FAFatemehBenvidiAssistant Professor, Academy of Arts, Tehran. Iran.Journal Article20200906The problem of the present study is in the first place to explain why painting is important. This article rereads the views of Steven Crowell and Paul Crowder in the tradition of phenomenology. According to them, painting is not just a transfer of empirical information, but also contains a deep philosophical insight that can be explored based on the components: silence, level, place and time. Along these components, the two concepts of ideal beauty and metaphysical beauty are also proposed. In this article and in the second place, the set of mentioned concepts is used to achieve an alternative reading in Iranian painting. Using descriptive and analytical methods and using the opinions of these two phenomenologists, the author tries to present the importance of Iranian painting with an alternative reading [compared to traditionalist and historiographical readings]. By re-reading their opinions, it is concluded that the reason for the importance of Iranian painting is the way it creates a confrontation with a deeper reality and beyond everyday perception. An encounter that reminds us of our ontological role compared to other beings; It transcends our finite limitations and invites us to delve deeper into the mystery of Being and in this way approach a form of aesthetic excellence.The problem of the present study is in the first place to explain why painting is important. This article rereads the views of Steven Crowell and Paul Crowder in the tradition of phenomenology. According to them, painting is not just a transfer of empirical information, but also contains a deep philosophical insight that can be explored based on the components: silence, level, place and time. Along these components, the two concepts of ideal beauty and metaphysical beauty are also proposed. In this article and in the second place, the set of mentioned concepts is used to achieve an alternative reading in Iranian painting. Using descriptive and analytical methods and using the opinions of these two phenomenologists, the author tries to present the importance of Iranian painting with an alternative reading [compared to traditionalist and historiographical readings]. By re-reading their opinions, it is concluded that the reason for the importance of Iranian painting is the way it creates a confrontation with a deeper reality and beyond everyday perception. An encounter that reminds us of our ontological role compared to other beings; It transcends our finite limitations and invites us to delve deeper into the mystery of Being and in this way approach a form of aesthetic excellence.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_11655_cff4c61ee2a6edcb758e5ed4112415b1.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Analyze of Deleuze's View about Human Existence and Its Relation with the Audience in Interactive ArtAnalyze of Deleuze's View about Human Existence and Its Relation with the Audience in Interactive Art83991107210.22034/jpiut.2020.40279.2586FAPariaChoubakPhD Candidate of Philosophy of Art, Islamic Azad University, Central Branch of Tehran, Tehran. Iran.MohammadAkvanAssociate Prof. of Philosophy, Islamic Azad University, Central Branch of Tehran, Tehran. Iran.MohammadrezaSharifzadehAssociate Prof. of Philosophy f art, Islamic Azad University, Central Branch of Tehran, Tehran. Iran.ZahraRahbarniaAssistant Prof. of Art, Alzahra University, Tehran, IranJournal Article20200610Interactive art, with a new attitude, changes the classical approach to the status of the audience as ineffective observation and then, transforms he/she, into one of the main pillars of creating the work based on interaction and portability that it is considered a contemplative view of human from the view of postmodern philosophy. The philosophical view of Gilles Deleuze as one of the most sophisticated approaches to human life can be used to analyze the questions of this writing, which relates to the audience and its role in shaping the work of art. Also some terms such as Becoming, Rhizome and Body without organs which is proposed by Deleuze can be used in the analysis of audience behaviors. The questions are; Interactive art can be the equivalent the concept of Becoming And choices the audience facing with, how can related to the definition of the organs without body and the rhizome. For answering to the questions, the basic information was extracted from library and digital resources, then by using these documents, the position of the audience was described in an analytical-descriptive way with Deleuze's approach. As a result, it became clear that the audience of interactive art faces a set of potentials that, according to the definition of an organs without body, it is unique for each individual audience. Each person's choices guide the process of creating an art work in a random and irregular route, similar to rhizome`s concept; A structure that is built along the path and at the moment. Always being at the moment, between the potential and the actual thing that the audience's choices leading it, is the philosophical definition of Becoming. The importance of the present study is in finding the connection between postmodern philosophy and postmodern Art.Interactive art, with a new attitude, changes the classical approach to the status of the audience as ineffective observation and then, transforms he/she, into one of the main pillars of creating the work based on interaction and portability that it is considered a contemplative view of human from the view of postmodern philosophy. The philosophical view of Gilles Deleuze as one of the most sophisticated approaches to human life can be used to analyze the questions of this writing, which relates to the audience and its role in shaping the work of art. Also some terms such as Becoming, Rhizome and Body without organs which is proposed by Deleuze can be used in the analysis of audience behaviors. The questions are; Interactive art can be the equivalent the concept of Becoming And choices the audience facing with, how can related to the definition of the organs without body and the rhizome. For answering to the questions, the basic information was extracted from library and digital resources, then by using these documents, the position of the audience was described in an analytical-descriptive way with Deleuze's approach. As a result, it became clear that the audience of interactive art faces a set of potentials that, according to the definition of an organs without body, it is unique for each individual audience. Each person's choices guide the process of creating an art work in a random and irregular route, similar to rhizome`s concept; A structure that is built along the path and at the moment. Always being at the moment, between the potential and the actual thing that the audience's choices leading it, is the philosophical definition of Becoming. The importance of the present study is in finding the connection between postmodern philosophy and postmodern Art.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_11072_663ea94baa9aa9c893c8311f8389195a.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421The Role of Non-Empirical Assumptions in Science and Its Consequences on the Idea of Local- Religious ScienceThe Role of Non-Empirical Assumptions in Science and Its Consequences on the Idea of Local- Religious Science1001211159810.22034/jpiut.2020.42279.2687FAAmirHajizadehPhD in philosophy, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran. İran.Journal Article20201014The movements of philosophy of science after the sixties, in particular, have abandoned the principle of verificationism and the belief in an explicit and absolute method for evaluating various scientific claims. On the other hand, such criticisms have played a special role in shaping, or validating claims related to, possibilities of other kinds of science, in particular, local / religious science programs. The central role of these developments is the role of non-empirical assumptions in scientific activities. This article tries to express the two main critiques of Kuhn and Quine on positivist views and then, by providing a four-level framework for scientific activity, we analyze the scope and consequences of these critiques to find out its effect on the discussion of "the interaction and participation of non-empirical assumptions in scientific activity". In this article, we state that by abandoning the principle of "verificationism", the criterion of the experimental test, including the whole transferred theory (confirmation holism) and by abandoning the idea of the explicit algorithmic scientific method, we are faced with "methodological pluralism". Attempts have been made to show that, assuming the validity of conventional critiques, although positivist austerity is incorrect, there are still important constraints on the interplay of non-empirical propositions arising from metaphysical, religious, and indigenous beliefs in scientific theories and the incorporation of non-cognitive values into scientific judgments. The movements of philosophy of science after the sixties, in particular, have abandoned the principle of verificationism and the belief in an explicit and absolute method for evaluating various scientific claims. On the other hand, such criticisms have played a special role in shaping, or validating claims related to, possibilities of other kinds of science, in particular, local / religious science programs. The central role of these developments is the role of non-empirical assumptions in scientific activities. This article tries to express the two main critiques of Kuhn and Quine on positivist views and then, by providing a four-level framework for scientific activity, we analyze the scope and consequences of these critiques to find out its effect on the discussion of "the interaction and participation of non-empirical assumptions in scientific activity". In this article, we state that by abandoning the principle of "verificationism", the criterion of the experimental test, including the whole transferred theory (confirmation holism) and by abandoning the idea of the explicit algorithmic scientific method, we are faced with "methodological pluralism". Attempts have been made to show that, assuming the validity of conventional critiques, although positivist austerity is incorrect, there are still important constraints on the interplay of non-empirical propositions arising from metaphysical, religious, and indigenous beliefs in scientific theories and the incorporation of non-cognitive values into scientific judgments. https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_11598_b247af596e5abb4e3932bca0d66c1fb3.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Husserl’s Transcendental Interpretation of Hume’s PhilosophyHusserl’s Transcendental Interpretation of Hume’s Philosophy1221401222810.22034/jpiut.2020.40538.2607FAAlirezaHassanpoorAssistant Professor of Philosophy, University of Ilam , Ilam. IranJournal Article20200628Considering the works of Hume and Husserl, this paper argues that Husserl’s interpretation of Hume’s philosophy as a transcendental philosophy is rooted in his distinctive approach to searching the transcendental in modern philosophy, which is not necessarily in conformity with the facts in the history of philosophy or at least with what is generally argues by the historians of philosophy. Indeed, according to a hermeneutical tradition which belongs to the great philosophers, not the commentators and the historians of philosophy, Husserl has paid particular attention to Hume’s views in order to find the origin of some basic concepts of his phenomenology in Hume’s philosophy. After considering the relation between Husserl's phenomenology and empiricism and the status of the transcendental in Hume's empiricism, such elements of phenomenology as reduction, constitution and life-world have been examined as counterparts of skepticism, imagination and external world in Hume's philosophy respectively. Finally, it has been argued that Husserl thus says the unsaid and thinks the unthought of Hume’s philosophy within his own transcendental phenomenology. Husserl’s approach is the same as the one we can see in the later Heidegger’s hermeneutics and his own approach to great philosophers. Considering the works of Hume and Husserl, this paper argues that Husserl’s interpretation of Hume’s philosophy as a transcendental philosophy is rooted in his distinctive approach to searching the transcendental in modern philosophy, which is not necessarily in conformity with the facts in the history of philosophy or at least with what is generally argues by the historians of philosophy. Indeed, according to a hermeneutical tradition which belongs to the great philosophers, not the commentators and the historians of philosophy, Husserl has paid particular attention to Hume’s views in order to find the origin of some basic concepts of his phenomenology in Hume’s philosophy. After considering the relation between Husserl's phenomenology and empiricism and the status of the transcendental in Hume's empiricism, such elements of phenomenology as reduction, constitution and life-world have been examined as counterparts of skepticism, imagination and external world in Hume's philosophy respectively. Finally, it has been argued that Husserl thus says the unsaid and thinks the unthought of Hume’s philosophy within his own transcendental phenomenology. Husserl’s approach is the same as the one we can see in the later Heidegger’s hermeneutics and his own approach to great philosophers. https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_12228_16a9287d05b1d04e52eef86fb5ab4f7d.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Lemmata for Philosophizing Art, in the light of Derrida's theoryLemmata for Philosophizing Art, in the light of Derrida's theory1411591072010.22034/jpiut.2020.38148.2507FAHeidarZahediM.A. in Philosophy of Art, Allameh Tabatabaei’ University, Tahran. Iran.AmirNasriAssociate Professor of philosophy, Allameh Tabatabaei’ University, Tahran. Iran.Journal Article20200209Some commentators assume the title of the first article of <em>The Truth in Painting</em>, Parergon, as "para-ergon" or "beyond the work". But in Derrida's text, "Parergon" is something more than just empty rhetoric. Assert that the atopics of the Parergon are “neither work, nor outside the work, neither inside, nor outside, neither above nor below”. He has extracted the word Parergon from the Third critic of Kant. The section "<em>Lemmes</em>" is the departure point of Derrida in the book. In this study, we have scrutinised the etymology of the French word "<em>Lemmes</em>" and traced its roots in the Indo-European (Persian branch), Hebrew, and Arabic Languages. We investigate what Derrida calls Lemmata of the work, and in fact, are the methods for philosophizing art. The methods which have been limited art in Metaphysical structure of philosophy and redefine it in an original and authentic frame. These Methods include Satirical Lemma of time, Art training Lemma, The encirclement of the circle Lemma and the Third-party or Middle Lemma. Meanwhile, we will do a survey to the concept "abyss", the concept that shows the colliding of the subject and object as one of determining issues in philosophy and specifically after Kant was a crucial concern for defining the notion of subjectivity. Another citation of the abyss (incision, cleft) in Derrida's text is attending to inoperable space of two critics of Kant and also regarding the relation between Kantian Noumenon and Phenomenon.Some commentators assume the title of the first article of <em>The Truth in Painting</em>, Parergon, as "para-ergon" or "beyond the work". But in Derrida's text, "Parergon" is something more than just empty rhetoric. Assert that the atopics of the Parergon are “neither work, nor outside the work, neither inside, nor outside, neither above nor below”. He has extracted the word Parergon from the Third critic of Kant. The section "<em>Lemmes</em>" is the departure point of Derrida in the book. In this study, we have scrutinised the etymology of the French word "<em>Lemmes</em>" and traced its roots in the Indo-European (Persian branch), Hebrew, and Arabic Languages. We investigate what Derrida calls Lemmata of the work, and in fact, are the methods for philosophizing art. The methods which have been limited art in Metaphysical structure of philosophy and redefine it in an original and authentic frame. These Methods include Satirical Lemma of time, Art training Lemma, The encirclement of the circle Lemma and the Third-party or Middle Lemma. Meanwhile, we will do a survey to the concept "abyss", the concept that shows the colliding of the subject and object as one of determining issues in philosophy and specifically after Kant was a crucial concern for defining the notion of subjectivity. Another citation of the abyss (incision, cleft) in Derrida's text is attending to inoperable space of two critics of Kant and also regarding the relation between Kantian Noumenon and Phenomenon.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_10720_f09412848dce704165027d2005b2ab62.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Muhammad ibn Zakaria al-Razi: Reformist philosopher or semi- philosopher physicianMuhammad ibn Zakaria al-Razi: Reformist philosopher or semi- philosopher physician1601771274610.22034/jpiut.2021.41220.2648FASorayaSoleimaniM. A. of Islamic philosophy, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran.Abbas AliMansouriAssistant Professor of Islamic philosophy, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran.Journal Article20200811< p >Muhammad ibn Zakaria al-Razi is one of the most challenging Thinkers in the history of science in the Islamic world that the challenge to his character and views has continued since his life. Regardless of the challenge of his philosophical or medical views or lifestyle, one of these wide-ranging challenges is the discussion of Zakaria''s relationship with philosophical thought and his place and position in philosophy. On the one hand, some consider the most important aspect of Razi''s scientific personality to be his medical dimension, and consider Razi''s thoughts on philosophy and theology as an exaggeration of his scientific personality and On the other hand some, while accepting his position in medicine , consider the most important aspect of Razi''s scientific personality to be his philosophical-theological views In such a way that he is compared to the scientists of the Enlightenment in free thought and rationalism, and he is even considered the only philosopher in the Islamic world. Now that the passage of time has made it easier to make biased judgments, the study of Razi''s surviving works shows that there is enough evidence (including: Razi''s self-defense, the multiplicity of philosophical writings, the presentation of novel ideas, etc.) To call the Muhammad ibn Zakaria al-Razi as a philosopher and his difference with other philosophers is not in his distance from philosophical thought, but in his method and dissenting views on philosophical and theological issues. <br />< p ><br />Now that the passage of time has made it easier to make biased judgments, the study of Razi''s surviving works shows that there is enough evidence (including: Razi''s self-defense, the multiplicity of philosophical writings, the presentation of novel ideas, etc.)to call the Muhammad ibn Zakaria al-Razi as a philosopher And his difference with other philosophers is not in his distance from philosophical thought, but in his method and dissenting views on philosophical and theological issues< p >Muhammad ibn Zakaria al-Razi is one of the most challenging Thinkers in the history of science in the Islamic world that the challenge to his character and views has continued since his life. Regardless of the challenge of his philosophical or medical views or lifestyle, one of these wide-ranging challenges is the discussion of Zakaria''s relationship with philosophical thought and his place and position in philosophy. On the one hand, some consider the most important aspect of Razi''s scientific personality to be his medical dimension, and consider Razi''s thoughts on philosophy and theology as an exaggeration of his scientific personality and On the other hand some, while accepting his position in medicine , consider the most important aspect of Razi''s scientific personality to be his philosophical-theological views In such a way that he is compared to the scientists of the Enlightenment in free thought and rationalism, and he is even considered the only philosopher in the Islamic world. Now that the passage of time has made it easier to make biased judgments, the study of Razi''s surviving works shows that there is enough evidence (including: Razi''s self-defense, the multiplicity of philosophical writings, the presentation of novel ideas, etc.) To call the Muhammad ibn Zakaria al-Razi as a philosopher and his difference with other philosophers is not in his distance from philosophical thought, but in his method and dissenting views on philosophical and theological issues. <br />< p ><br />Now that the passage of time has made it easier to make biased judgments, the study of Razi''s surviving works shows that there is enough evidence (including: Razi''s self-defense, the multiplicity of philosophical writings, the presentation of novel ideas, etc.)to call the Muhammad ibn Zakaria al-Razi as a philosopher And his difference with other philosophers is not in his distance from philosophical thought, but in his method and dissenting views on philosophical and theological issueshttps://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_12746_959e94c423ba630b3247182f46e29d48.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421God in Plato's PhilosophyGod in Plato's Philosophy1781971063610.22034/jpiut.2020.34911.2368FATayebehShaddelPhD of Islamic Philosophy, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Tabriz, Iran.MansourImanpourAssociate Professor, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Tabriz, IranHosseinAtrakAssociate Professor, University of Zanjan. Zanjan, IranJournal Article20190731There are different meanings of the word “God” that have been used by philosophers throughout the history of philosophy, such as theism, pantheism, panentheism, deism, and etc. The subject of this paper is the concept of “God” in Plato’s philosophy. Considering Plato’s different treatises that have the most theological material, it can be said that he has not meant a single concept of this word. In <em>The Republic</em>, given the characteristics that have been attributed to God, like simplicity, transcendental, it seems that his conception of God is close to theism. In <em>Phaedo</em>, since Plato does not give any role to the gods, it seems that we are encountered a Plato without God. In <em>Timaeus</em>, we encounter two candidates, Demiurge and the world’s soul. Some philosophers consider Demiurge as a myth and the world’s soul as Plato’s God. According to this view, Plato can be regarded as the source of inspiration for the Pannanteists. In contrast, some other believe that the world’s soul here is a myth and Demiurge is Plato’s God. This viewpoint is closer to theism. In the<em> Laws</em>, since Plato mentions some attributes to God, such as three absolutes, the origin of moral obligation, and etc. His conception here is very close to theism. On the other hand, the “first self-moved Mover” presents a panentheistic conception of God. His various treatises also provide evidence in favor of the unknown God of the Negative Theology. Thus, there are various conceptions of God in Plato’s philosophy.There are different meanings of the word “God” that have been used by philosophers throughout the history of philosophy, such as theism, pantheism, panentheism, deism, and etc. The subject of this paper is the concept of “God” in Plato’s philosophy. Considering Plato’s different treatises that have the most theological material, it can be said that he has not meant a single concept of this word. In <em>The Republic</em>, given the characteristics that have been attributed to God, like simplicity, transcendental, it seems that his conception of God is close to theism. In <em>Phaedo</em>, since Plato does not give any role to the gods, it seems that we are encountered a Plato without God. In <em>Timaeus</em>, we encounter two candidates, Demiurge and the world’s soul. Some philosophers consider Demiurge as a myth and the world’s soul as Plato’s God. According to this view, Plato can be regarded as the source of inspiration for the Pannanteists. In contrast, some other believe that the world’s soul here is a myth and Demiurge is Plato’s God. This viewpoint is closer to theism. In the<em> Laws</em>, since Plato mentions some attributes to God, such as three absolutes, the origin of moral obligation, and etc. His conception here is very close to theism. On the other hand, the “first self-moved Mover” presents a panentheistic conception of God. His various treatises also provide evidence in favor of the unknown God of the Negative Theology. Thus, there are various conceptions of God in Plato’s philosophy.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_10636_6b397becd24845440af243a78814edad.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Explaining the Necessity of Philosophical Counseling in LogotherapyExplaining the Necessity of Philosophical Counseling in Logotherapy1982231222910.22034/jpiut.2021.42892.2714FARohamSharafAssiatant Professor of philosophy, University of Zanjan, Zanjan. Iran.Journal Article20201117Philosophical counseling is a type counseling which has become popular in recent thirty years in developed countries. It is not only utilized to answer philosophical questions of the clients but to treat psychological disorders as well as individual and social problems. In fact, this type of counseling is an important manifestation of practical philosophy in the contemporary world and reflects the important position of philosophy in individual and social life. On the other hand, logotherapy is one of the important theories in the field of psychiatry which has attracted the attention of many psychiatrists and tries to look at the analysis and treatment of spiritual and psychological problems from a different perspective. Based on this theory, the main root of human’s psychological problems is his/her failure to find a meaning in life which leads to nihilism. Although this type of treatment has been formulated based on the thoughts of such philosophers as Max Scheler, Nietzsche, Heidegger and Jaspers as Viktor Frankl, the founder of this theory, confirms this fact, the hypothesis of this article is that logotherapists also need philosophical counseling in the process of treating their clients because there are cases where the logotherapist is unable to apply principles of logotherapy and its techniques and therefore the issue of the interaction between philosophical counselor and logotherapist is raised in the process of treatment. This article is aimed at explaining the role of philosophical counseling both in clarifying the foundations of logotherapy and implementation of its techniques and demonstrate the fundamental importance of philosophical counseling from this perspective. We hope to see growing application of this type of counseling in Iran in near future. Philosophical counseling is a type counseling which has become popular in recent thirty years in developed countries. It is not only utilized to answer philosophical questions of the clients but to treat psychological disorders as well as individual and social problems. In fact, this type of counseling is an important manifestation of practical philosophy in the contemporary world and reflects the important position of philosophy in individual and social life. On the other hand, logotherapy is one of the important theories in the field of psychiatry which has attracted the attention of many psychiatrists and tries to look at the analysis and treatment of spiritual and psychological problems from a different perspective. Based on this theory, the main root of human’s psychological problems is his/her failure to find a meaning in life which leads to nihilism. Although this type of treatment has been formulated based on the thoughts of such philosophers as Max Scheler, Nietzsche, Heidegger and Jaspers as Viktor Frankl, the founder of this theory, confirms this fact, the hypothesis of this article is that logotherapists also need philosophical counseling in the process of treating their clients because there are cases where the logotherapist is unable to apply principles of logotherapy and its techniques and therefore the issue of the interaction between philosophical counselor and logotherapist is raised in the process of treatment. This article is aimed at explaining the role of philosophical counseling both in clarifying the foundations of logotherapy and implementation of its techniques and demonstrate the fundamental importance of philosophical counseling from this perspective. We hope to see growing application of this type of counseling in Iran in near future. https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_12229_733df0b3bad8b21b47516c2eb6726af5.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Underdetermination and Scientific RealismUnderdetermination and Scientific Realism2242471081410.22034/jpiut.2020.39058.2530FAJalalAbdollahiM.A. in philosophy of science, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.0000-0002-9907-2076JavadAkbari TakhtameshlouAssistant Professor of philosophy, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.Journal Article20200403It is claimed that the underdetermination of scientific theories by empirical data can undermine the position of scientific realism. Believing in the (approximate) truth of mature scientific theories, scientific realists believe that we can know the unobservable level of the world based on the ontologies of these theories. But this belief has been challenged by relying on the underdetermination thesis. It has been said that since there are numerous equivalent theories for each scientific theory that, despite presenting different ontologies, they are all equally consistent with observational evidence, any realistic belief in the truth of any theories would not have any epistemic support. To overcome this challenge, realists need to show that we have epistemic ways other than the direct confirmation by observational evidence that can break such an underdetermination. In this article, after carefully delineating the problem, we will try to show that it is possible to answer this question by relying on an approach we call "development of confirmation resources". According to this approach, theories can also be confirmed by other sources. The most important resources presented so far are: indirect confirmation and theoretical virtue. After evaluating indirect confirmation, in favor of this claim we will argue, beyond empirical consequences, theoretical virtue, especially "explanatory power", can serve better as the source of confirmation that realists need. Of course, the usage of theoretical virtue has always been challenged, but, in the final sections of the paper, we will show that these challenges can be answered. It is claimed that the underdetermination of scientific theories by empirical data can undermine the position of scientific realism. Believing in the (approximate) truth of mature scientific theories, scientific realists believe that we can know the unobservable level of the world based on the ontologies of these theories. But this belief has been challenged by relying on the underdetermination thesis. It has been said that since there are numerous equivalent theories for each scientific theory that, despite presenting different ontologies, they are all equally consistent with observational evidence, any realistic belief in the truth of any theories would not have any epistemic support. To overcome this challenge, realists need to show that we have epistemic ways other than the direct confirmation by observational evidence that can break such an underdetermination. In this article, after carefully delineating the problem, we will try to show that it is possible to answer this question by relying on an approach we call "development of confirmation resources". According to this approach, theories can also be confirmed by other sources. The most important resources presented so far are: indirect confirmation and theoretical virtue. After evaluating indirect confirmation, in favor of this claim we will argue, beyond empirical consequences, theoretical virtue, especially "explanatory power", can serve better as the source of confirmation that realists need. Of course, the usage of theoretical virtue has always been challenged, but, in the final sections of the paper, we will show that these challenges can be answered. https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_10814_23ddfadcec5af5f14a25ce3d7de2a492.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421C. Stephen Layman’s Moral ArgumentC. Stephen Layman’s Moral Argument2482661134910.22034/jpiut.2020.42353.2688FABahramAlizadehAssistant Professor of Philosophy, Kharazmi University, Tehran. Iran.Journal Article20201018C. Stephen Layman has argued that (1) In every actual case one has most reason to do what is morally required. (2) If there is no God and no life after death, then there are cases in which morality requires that one make a great sacrifice that confers relatively modest benefits. (3) If (2), then one does not have most reason to do what is morally required. According to Layman, these three non–question-begging theses about the moral order are defensible, and that they support theism over naturalism (given that the naturalism accepts that morality is always overriding).In this paper, the central claims of his argument are examined under the following two thesis (As he himself has offered this division); the <em>Reasons Thesis</em> and the <em>Conditional Thesis</em>. Layman does not seem to have much trouble defending the <em>Reasons Thesis, </em>but the <em>Conditional Thesis</em> has problems that challenge the correctness of his argument. C. Stephen Layman has argued that (1) In every actual case one has most reason to do what is morally required. (2) If there is no God and no life after death, then there are cases in which morality requires that one make a great sacrifice that confers relatively modest benefits. (3) If (2), then one does not have most reason to do what is morally required. According to Layman, these three non–question-begging theses about the moral order are defensible, and that they support theism over naturalism (given that the naturalism accepts that morality is always overriding).In this paper, the central claims of his argument are examined under the following two thesis (As he himself has offered this division); the <em>Reasons Thesis</em> and the <em>Conditional Thesis</em>. Layman does not seem to have much trouble defending the <em>Reasons Thesis, </em>but the <em>Conditional Thesis</em> has problems that challenge the correctness of his argument. https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_11349_2720d33bea531526a9687d0ce3d4220f.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Investigating the Problem of Truth in Descartes' EpistemologyInvestigating the Problem of Truth in Descartes' Epistemology2672831286110.22034/jpiut.2021.37569.2484FASajedehFiroozbakhtPhD Candidate of philosophy, University of Tabriz, Tabriz. Iran.MustafaShahraeiniAssociate Professor of philosophy, Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, Tehran. İran.Journal Article20191229Question of truth and its role in Epistemology is a challenging topic in philosophical thinking. Most of philosophers and researcher accept the meaning of truth as conformity with reality and say that it is related to judgments; as the way that whenever our judgment conforms to their real and material objects, they are true. However, Descartes' idea is somehow different. He believes that the truth is based on two Property, namely Clarity and distinctness and is related to Ideas and Judgment. In this article, we want to say that the truth is consequently achieved epistemological meditations and clear and distinct perceptions. So, Truth in philosophy of Descartes is internal, not external. That is, truth is realized within the epistemological process and after attaining conditions such as having a clear and distinct knowledge.Question of truth and its role in Epistemology is a challenging topic in philosophical thinking. Most of philosophers and researcher accept the meaning of truth as conformity with reality and say that it is related to judgments; as the way that whenever our judgment conforms to their real and material objects, they are true. However, Descartes' idea is somehow different. He believes that the truth is based on two Property, namely Clarity and distinctness and is related to Ideas and Judgment. In this article, we want to say that the truth is consequently achieved epistemological meditations and clear and distinct perceptions. So, Truth in philosophy of Descartes is internal, not external. That is, truth is realized within the epistemological process and after attaining conditions such as having a clear and distinct knowledge.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_12861_5e2ccccec1116bf328afb0ff873f4202.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Improvement of Reason and Legal Syestem in Kant's ThoughtImprovement of Reason and Legal Syestem in Kant's Thought2842991148810.22034/jpiut.2020.40683.2610FAArtemisGhoubadiPhD Student of Philosophy of Education, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran.Mohammad RezaShamshiriAssistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, IranZohrehSaadatmandAssociate Professor, Department of Curriculum planning, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, IranJournal Article20200707Enlightenment, in Kant's philosophical system, focuses on the future in which, man can attain his essence, that is to say, his freedom and the maximum efflorescence of talents; the same talents nature or divine providence has given him. Under this perspective, the direction of reason throughout history has been focused on the growth of man toward the will of nature; a desire the nature through the same channel achieves which is culture and civilization of human societies. In this ultimate idea, the entire history is the history of man's step-by-step movement toward freedom, rationality, and morality in the form of a socio-civil system in which, man demonstrates his nature with civil participation, control of war, and the growth of education and culture hence, the idea of unity is embodied. This article tries to show how Kant uses Rousseau's main idea based on the need to change man’s secondary nature in accordance with nature’s will in both legal-civil system and education system, and reviews Rousseau's revolutionary plan in the framework of his theory of intellect.Enlightenment, in Kant's philosophical system, focuses on the future in which, man can attain his essence, that is to say, his freedom and the maximum efflorescence of talents; the same talents nature or divine providence has given him. Under this perspective, the direction of reason throughout history has been focused on the growth of man toward the will of nature; a desire the nature through the same channel achieves which is culture and civilization of human societies. In this ultimate idea, the entire history is the history of man's step-by-step movement toward freedom, rationality, and morality in the form of a socio-civil system in which, man demonstrates his nature with civil participation, control of war, and the growth of education and culture hence, the idea of unity is embodied. This article tries to show how Kant uses Rousseau's main idea based on the need to change man’s secondary nature in accordance with nature’s will in both legal-civil system and education system, and reviews Rousseau's revolutionary plan in the framework of his theory of intellect.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_11488_93bafc7f0160f794f8afefef9f17bd04.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421The ontology of Finitude in Heidegger and Foucault’s PhilosophyThe ontology of Finitude in Heidegger and Foucault’s Philosophy300326891310.22034/jpiut.2019.31480.2214FAJamalGhoreyshi Khorasganiphd Candidate of philosophy, University of Isfahan, Isfahan. Iran.AliKarbasizadeh IsfahaniAssociate Professor of philosophy, University of Isfahan. Isfahan. Iran.YousefShaghoolAssociate Professor of philosophy, University of Isfahan. Isfahan. Iran.Journal Article20190112In this article, we analyze the basic role of finitude in Heidegger and Foucault’s philosophy. We argue that finitude makes possible Heidegger’s concept of being and the history of being as well as Foucault’s concept of the modernity and the entire history of western thinking in later Foucault. To accomplish this objective, we conduct the following: We analyze the basic finitude in Heidegger’s ontology; We explain “analytic of finitude” in early Foucault’s work namely <em>the birth of the clinic</em> and <em>the order of things</em>; We describe Foucault’s interpretation of Heidegger’s formulation of finitude; We specify the place of partial and relative nothingness in Heidegger and Foucault’s approach to human finitude; We explain that individuality, resistance, truth and historicity are possible by finitude in philosophy of them; And finally, we analyze how Foucault meets Heidegger in passing epistemological understanding of finitude and arriving at practical understanding of self-finitude and outlining the history of being.In this article, we analyze the basic role of finitude in Heidegger and Foucault’s philosophy. We argue that finitude makes possible Heidegger’s concept of being and the history of being as well as Foucault’s concept of the modernity and the entire history of western thinking in later Foucault. To accomplish this objective, we conduct the following: We analyze the basic finitude in Heidegger’s ontology; We explain “analytic of finitude” in early Foucault’s work namely <em>the birth of the clinic</em> and <em>the order of things</em>; We describe Foucault’s interpretation of Heidegger’s formulation of finitude; We specify the place of partial and relative nothingness in Heidegger and Foucault’s approach to human finitude; We explain that individuality, resistance, truth and historicity are possible by finitude in philosophy of them; And finally, we analyze how Foucault meets Heidegger in passing epistemological understanding of finitude and arriving at practical understanding of self-finitude and outlining the history of being.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_8913_32df193c5d14a6b48946cf37bb39787a.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421The Death of the Subject in the Social Networks Age, the Perspective of Baudrillard's Fractal RealityThe Death of the Subject in the Social Networks Age, the Perspective of Baudrillard's Fractal Reality3273441081510.22034/jpiut.2020.40194.2605FAAmirrezaMafi ShirazPhD Candidate, philosophy department, Islamic Azad University, North Tehran Branch, Tehran. İran.BijanAbdolkarimiAssociate Professor, philosophy department, Islamic Azad University, North Tehran Branch, Tehran. İran.Journal Article20200625Western Philosophy has been preoccupied with the duality of subject and object and every modern philosopher has engaged with these concepts in accordance with their philosophical paradigms. Rene Descartes coined the modern conception of subject and Emanuel Kant expanded the Cartesian subject and provided a stable and non-negotiable theory of subject. Jean Baudrillard too has engaged with the duality of subject and object, though in implicit terms, through exploring simulation and simulacrum in the the three stages of symbolic, production and hyperreality. According to Baudrillard the image of reality has replaced the objective reality in the age of technological advancements and hyperreality is active to deny this very process. Upon the expansion of mass media in the twenty first century, Baudrillard added a new dimension to his theory: Fractal Reality, which is the result of the proliferation of images and the emptiness of meaning in the post-modern age. With the rise of cellphone technology and social media and endless inflation of images in the last decade, it appears that Fractal Reality has become even more intense. This “inflation,” has caused the dissolution of subject and object and with the demise of this duality, social media has replaced every reality and the subject has lost its meaning. This condition that is the result of the inflation of the endless images in social media may be called “inflated reality.” This concept furthers Baudrillard’s fractal reality and invites this French philosopher to the study of social media culture.Western Philosophy has been preoccupied with the duality of subject and object and every modern philosopher has engaged with these concepts in accordance with their philosophical paradigms. Rene Descartes coined the modern conception of subject and Emanuel Kant expanded the Cartesian subject and provided a stable and non-negotiable theory of subject. Jean Baudrillard too has engaged with the duality of subject and object, though in implicit terms, through exploring simulation and simulacrum in the the three stages of symbolic, production and hyperreality. According to Baudrillard the image of reality has replaced the objective reality in the age of technological advancements and hyperreality is active to deny this very process. Upon the expansion of mass media in the twenty first century, Baudrillard added a new dimension to his theory: Fractal Reality, which is the result of the proliferation of images and the emptiness of meaning in the post-modern age. With the rise of cellphone technology and social media and endless inflation of images in the last decade, it appears that Fractal Reality has become even more intense. This “inflation,” has caused the dissolution of subject and object and with the demise of this duality, social media has replaced every reality and the subject has lost its meaning. This condition that is the result of the inflation of the endless images in social media may be called “inflated reality.” This concept furthers Baudrillard’s fractal reality and invites this French philosopher to the study of social media culture.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_10815_b45ff43a1f76da5f651606a939a26ce1.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Callicles versus Socrates or the Practical Life of the Politician and the Contemplative Life of the PhilosopherCallicles versus Socrates or the Practical Life of the Politician and the Contemplative Life of the Philosopher3453621090310.22034/jpiut.2020.39182.2534FAHamidrezaMahboobi AraniAssistant professor of philosophy, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IranJournal Article20200409Nowhere in his corpus, except for <em>Gorgias</em>, Plato allows such a rude and blunt critic of contemplative philosophy as Callicles speaks so forcefully and raises the most profound and enduring challenge to Socrates' philosophic life. Such a challenge was not something new in the fifth and fourth centuries BC and Callicles' not fewer than four quotations from Euripides' lost play, Antiope, witnesses Plato's awareness of the significance and commonality of this ongoing debate. Through a detailed discussion of <em>Antiope</em>'s debate between Zethus and Amphion and Calicles opening rhesis, the paper investigates the complicated relationship between these two temporally and stylistically different expressions of one debate, concluding that Plato's owe to Euripides's <em>Antiope</em> is more than just quoting a few passages almost verbatim. Callicles, whether a historical person or a literary invention, doesn’t just represent a fragment of Plato himself—a frightening vision, perhaps, of what he might have become without Socrates. Rather, it is a mouthpiece for Plato's inner resistance to the way that Socrates' way of philosophic life, correcting it and finally making it compromise with the more active life manner of a politician, as in Euripies’ <em>Antiope</em>.Nowhere in his corpus, except for <em>Gorgias</em>, Plato allows such a rude and blunt critic of contemplative philosophy as Callicles speaks so forcefully and raises the most profound and enduring challenge to Socrates' philosophic life. Such a challenge was not something new in the fifth and fourth centuries BC and Callicles' not fewer than four quotations from Euripides' lost play, Antiope, witnesses Plato's awareness of the significance and commonality of this ongoing debate. Through a detailed discussion of <em>Antiope</em>'s debate between Zethus and Amphion and Calicles opening rhesis, the paper investigates the complicated relationship between these two temporally and stylistically different expressions of one debate, concluding that Plato's owe to Euripides's <em>Antiope</em> is more than just quoting a few passages almost verbatim. Callicles, whether a historical person or a literary invention, doesn’t just represent a fragment of Plato himself—a frightening vision, perhaps, of what he might have become without Socrates. Rather, it is a mouthpiece for Plato's inner resistance to the way that Socrates' way of philosophic life, correcting it and finally making it compromise with the more active life manner of a politician, as in Euripies’ <em>Antiope</em>.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_10903_bfeb49e8e9341d4954d9fb1146b93558.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421The concept of space in the phenomenology of Cassirer, Heidegger and SchmitzThe concept of space in the phenomenology of Cassirer, Heidegger and Schmitz3633801142110.22034/jpiut.2020.41348.2655FAEhsanMoravejiPhD Candidate of Philosophy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.ParvizZia ShahabiAssistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.MalekHosseiniAssistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.Journal Article20200819The concept of space has always been a fundamental theme and issue since the beginning of philosophy and abstract thinking in ancient Greece, and has been fundamentally change due to cultural-historical changes of spatiality throughout the history of knowledge. At the beginning of philosophy, there was a metaphysical question about the beginning or the first cause (arche) of all things, to which the concept of space, as a fundamental concept, is the answer. The main lines of philosophical discourse in ancient Greece, which flowed in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, were conceived in the context of Euclid's geometry and Ptolemy's worldview. In the modern era, Descartes, Leibniz and Kant tried to conceptually influence space with Copernican rotation and Newtonian physics. Finally, spatial imagery is challenged by the application of physiological problems through non-Euclidean geometry, and especially through phenomenology. Hence, the opening of phenomenological concepts in philosophy and other disciplines that focus on the concept of space could be of interest to researchers in the foundations of phenomenology. Therefore, the aspect of effort in this article is the descriptive analytical development of the opinions of three expert phenomenologists (Ernst Cassirer, Martin Heidegger and Hermann Schmitz) on space. These three philosophers base their theories on a critique of the (positivist) way of speaking on space. This approach taken by Descartes and Newton has been completed in recent times. In this article, we discuss the philosophical foundations of these philosophers. We discuss the space with each of these three philosophers in terms of a key concept in their philosophical system. Therefore, for Cassirer, we discuss the concept of symbolic spaces, for Heidegger, the concept of being-in-the-world, and for Schmitz, the concept of surfaceless space and felt-bodily space.The concept of space has always been a fundamental theme and issue since the beginning of philosophy and abstract thinking in ancient Greece, and has been fundamentally change due to cultural-historical changes of spatiality throughout the history of knowledge. At the beginning of philosophy, there was a metaphysical question about the beginning or the first cause (arche) of all things, to which the concept of space, as a fundamental concept, is the answer. The main lines of philosophical discourse in ancient Greece, which flowed in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, were conceived in the context of Euclid's geometry and Ptolemy's worldview. In the modern era, Descartes, Leibniz and Kant tried to conceptually influence space with Copernican rotation and Newtonian physics. Finally, spatial imagery is challenged by the application of physiological problems through non-Euclidean geometry, and especially through phenomenology. Hence, the opening of phenomenological concepts in philosophy and other disciplines that focus on the concept of space could be of interest to researchers in the foundations of phenomenology. Therefore, the aspect of effort in this article is the descriptive analytical development of the opinions of three expert phenomenologists (Ernst Cassirer, Martin Heidegger and Hermann Schmitz) on space. These three philosophers base their theories on a critique of the (positivist) way of speaking on space. This approach taken by Descartes and Newton has been completed in recent times. In this article, we discuss the philosophical foundations of these philosophers. We discuss the space with each of these three philosophers in terms of a key concept in their philosophical system. Therefore, for Cassirer, we discuss the concept of symbolic spaces, for Heidegger, the concept of being-in-the-world, and for Schmitz, the concept of surfaceless space and felt-bodily space.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_11421_25fa938942c5a846b3290d6a8defe415.pdfUniversity of TabrizJournal of Philosophical Investigations2251-7960153420210421Subject of Metaphysics:
A Critique of Natorp's Neo-Kantian Approach Based on Hamelin's InterpretationSubject of Metaphysics:
A Critique of Natorp's Neo-Kantian Approach Based on Hamelin's Interpretation3813981286210.22034/jpiut.2021.41049.2636FAHediehYaghubi BojmaehPhD Candidate in Philosophy, Iranian Institute of Philosophy (IRIP), Tehran. Iran.ShahinAvaniAssociate Professor of philosophy, Iranian Institute of Philosophy (IRIP), Tehran. Iran.EhsanKarimi TorshiziPhD in Philosophy, Allameh Tababa’i University, Tehran. Iran.Journal Article20200730As it is well known, Aristotle in his <em>Metaphysics</em> seeks a science subsumed under different rubrics of “prime philosophy”, “wisdom”, “the study of being qua being”, and “theology”. The relation between these different titles of <em>Metaphysics</em> has been formulated by Paul Natorp as an insoluble paradox: the subject matter of prime philosophy cannot be both being qua being (being in general) and divine being (the supreme being) at the same time. Since Natorp, there has always been a controversy on this paradox as well as the problem of integrity of different books of Metaphysics. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is twofold. Firstly, we shall scrutinize the neo-Kantian foundation of Natorp’s interpretation of Aristotle; secondly, we shall present Octave Hamelin’s exegesis of Aristotle’s theory of being as an interpretation on the basis of which two seemingly contradictory aspects of Aristotle’s metaphysics can be reconciled, and thereby one can find an appropriate solution to this paradox. In fact, we intend to disclose the underlying assumptions lie at the bottom of Natorp’s understanding of Aristotle, and we shall indicate that Hamelin’s ontological interpretation of Metaphysics is so fertile that provides us with an appropriate measure to avoid confronting such contradictions.As it is well known, Aristotle in his <em>Metaphysics</em> seeks a science subsumed under different rubrics of “prime philosophy”, “wisdom”, “the study of being qua being”, and “theology”. The relation between these different titles of <em>Metaphysics</em> has been formulated by Paul Natorp as an insoluble paradox: the subject matter of prime philosophy cannot be both being qua being (being in general) and divine being (the supreme being) at the same time. Since Natorp, there has always been a controversy on this paradox as well as the problem of integrity of different books of Metaphysics. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is twofold. Firstly, we shall scrutinize the neo-Kantian foundation of Natorp’s interpretation of Aristotle; secondly, we shall present Octave Hamelin’s exegesis of Aristotle’s theory of being as an interpretation on the basis of which two seemingly contradictory aspects of Aristotle’s metaphysics can be reconciled, and thereby one can find an appropriate solution to this paradox. In fact, we intend to disclose the underlying assumptions lie at the bottom of Natorp’s understanding of Aristotle, and we shall indicate that Hamelin’s ontological interpretation of Metaphysics is so fertile that provides us with an appropriate measure to avoid confronting such contradictions.https://philosophy.tabrizu.ac.ir/article_12862_847915a2cbdc9a539d455b2e96d8a87e.pdf