Inclusivity in Artificial Intelligence from a Philosophical-Legal Perspective

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Jurisprudence and Law, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

2 PhD in Comparative Philosophy. Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

The rapid development of AI has drawn intense attention to its philosophical and legal implications, especially regarding discrimination and bias. A fundamental weakness in this discourse is the emphasis on the concept of “citizen,” which is an exclusive category that does not encompass all stakeholders. Achieving true inclusiveness in AI systems requires a fundamental shift in terminology from “citizen” to a more inclusive concept. The title “individual” is a common alternative, but the legal term “person” is more inclusive. Because it encompasses both natural and legal persons. This research emphasizes, using the method of conceptual and critical analysis within the framework of philosophical-ethical, jurisprudential-legal thought and with library tools, that protecting this inclusiveness is not only a moral necessity, but also a legal obligation, and examines the foundations of Imami jurisprudence as a Sharia law perspective to support and explain the person-centered approach. By combining philosophical-ethical, and jurisprudential-legal arguments, this article has provided a more robust framework for the design and governance of pervasive artificial intelligence systems.

Graphical Abstract

Inclusivity in Artificial Intelligence from a Philosophical-Legal Perspective

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

Abbasi, M., & Teymouri, M. (2023). A review of the ethical and legal challenges of applying artificial intelligence in the health system. Journal of Medical Ethics, 17(48), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.22037/mej.v17i48.44053 (in persian)
Amini, A. (2016). Rethinking the relationship between fairness and law. Private Law Research Quarterly, 5(16), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.22054/jplr.2016.6740 (in persian)
Angelo, J. A., Jr. (2006). Robotics: A reference guide to the new technology (1st ed.). Greenwood Press.
Asadpour, F., Pahlavanzadeh, A., & Khandani, P. (2023). The impact of developments in artificial intelligence in the legal field of intellectual property. Private and Criminal Law Research, (58), 131–147. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/2178994/ (in persian)
Ashuri Qaismi, M. (2024a). A study of some ethical issues of artificial intelligence in art. Metaphysics, 16(37), 93–110. https://doi.org/10.22108/mph.2024.138105.1488 (in persian)
Ashuri Qaismi, M. (2024b). The convergence of privacy and transparency, limitations of artificial intelligence design. Wisdom and Philosophy, 20(78), 45–73. https://doi.org/10.22054/wph.2024.75680.2183 (in persian)
Ashuri Qaismi, M., & Parvizi, M. (2024). A study of the ethical agency of general artificial intelligence. Science and Religion Studies, 15(1), 125–151. https://doi.org/10.30465/srs.2024.49282.2162 (in persian)
Ashuri Qismi, M., Parvizi, M., & Momeni, S. M. (2025). Pragmatism, ethics of artificial intelligence and socio-technical systems. Journal of Philosophical Research, 19(52), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.22034/jpiut.2025.66643.4060 (in persian)
Bakiner, O. (2014). Paths, dangers, strategies. Oxford University Press.
Bakiner, O. (2023). Pluralistic sociotechnical imaginaries in Artificial Intelligence (AI) law: The case of the European Union’s AI Act. Law, Innovation and Technology, 15(2), 558–582. https://doi.org/10.1080/17579961.2023.2245675
Bojnardi, S. H. (1998). Al-qawwaad al-fiqhiyyah (1st ed.). Nashr al-Hadi, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Boroujerdi, H. (1992). Three editions A. P. Eshtehardi, Ed. 1st ed, Jamia Madrasain, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Bostrom, N. (2012). The superintelligent will: Motivation and instrumental rationality in advanced artificial agents. Minds & Machines, 71–85.
Coeckelbergh, M. (2020). AI ethics. The MIT Press.
Coeckelbergh, M., & Sætra, H. S. (2023). Climate change and the political pathways of AI: The technocracy‑democracy dilemma in light of artificial intelligence and human agency. Technology in Society, 75, Article 102406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2023.102406
Dignum, V. (2018). Ethics in artificial intelligence: Introduction to the special issue. Ethics and Information Technology, 20(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-018-9450-z
Ebers, M., Hoch, V. R., Rosenkranz, F., Ruschemeier, H., & Steinrötter, B. (2021). The European Commission’s proposal for an Artificial Intelligence Act—A critical assessment by members of the Robotics and AI Law Society (RAILS). J, 4(4), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.3390/j4040043
Engstrom, D. F., & Haim, A. (2023). Regulating government AI and the challenge of sociotechnical design. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 19(1), 277–298.
Floridi, L. (2023). The ethics of artificial intelligence: Principles, challenges, and opportunities. Oxford University Press.
Greenstein, S. (2022). Preserving the rule of law in the era of artificial intelligence (AI). Artificial Intelligence and Law, 30(3), 291–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10506-021-09294-4
Hashemi, S., et al. (2003). The dictionary of fiqh according to the school of the Ahl al-Bayt (peace be upon them) (1st ed.). Institute of the Encyclopedia of Islamic Fiqh, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Hendrycks, D. (2025). Introduction to AI safety, ethics, and society. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003530336
Holton, R., & Boyd, R. (2021). “Where are the people? What are they doing? Why are they doing it?” (Mindell): Situating artificial intelligence within a socio‑technical framework. Journal of Sociology, 57(2), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783319873046
Hopster, J. (2021). What are socially disruptive technologies? Technology in Society, 67, Article 101750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101750
Hussaini, M. (n.d.). Miftah al-karama, 1st ed, Dar Ihya al-Turat al-Arabyyah, Beirut, Lebanon. (In Arabic)
Ibn Sina. (2007). Sharh al-isharat, 1st ed, Bostan Ketab, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Iman, M. T., & Ghafari Nasab, E. (2011). Ethical criteria in humanities research. Ethics in Science and Technology Quarterly, (2), 4. (in persian)
Johnson, C. Y. (2019, October 24). Racial bias in a medical algorithm favors white patients over sicker black patients. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2019/10/24/racialbias-medical-algorithm-favors white-patients-over-sicker-black-patients/
Khoi, S. A. (1997). Musoo’ah al-imam al-khoi, 1st ed, Ihya’a at-Ta’r al-Imam al-Khoi, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Kudina, O., & van de Poel, I. (2024). A sociotechnical system perspective on AI. Minds and Machines, 34(3), Article 21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-024-09680-2
Makarem Shirazi, N. (2006). Encyclopedia of contemporary jurisprudence, 1st ed, Madrasa Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Mirdamad, M. (2014). The rules of breastfeeding, 2nd ed, Al-Mustafa Publishing Center, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Mohaqeq Isfahani, M. H. (2008). The end of al-diriyah, 2nd ed, Aal-Bayt Foundation for the Revival of Heritage, Beirut, Lebanon. (In Arabic)
Mozaffar, M. R. (2008). Principles of jurisprudence, 5th ed, Bostan Ketab, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Mulla Sadra. (1989). Transcendental wisdom, 1st ed, Maktaba al-Mustafawi, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Muller, V. (2021a). Ethics of artificial intelligence and robotics. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved December 18, 2024, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ai/
Muller, V. (2021b). Deep opacity undermines data protection and explainable artificial intelligence. In Overcoming opacity in machine learning.
Muller, V., & Cannon, M. (2022). Existential risk from AI and orthogonality: Can we have it both ways? Ratio, 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/rati.12320
Najafi, M. H. (2000). Jawaher al-kalam, 1st ed, Institute of the Encyclopedia of Contemporary Fiqh, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Nay, J. J. (2023). Law informs code: A legal informatics approach to aligning artificial intelligence with humans. Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property, 20(3). arXiv:2209.13020
Nguyen, A., Ngo, H. N., Hong, Y., Dang, B., & Nguyen, B. P. T. (2023). Ethical principles for artificial intelligence in education. Education and Information Technologies, 28(4), 4221–4241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11316-w
Nyholm, S., Friedman, C., Dale, M. T., Puzio, A., Babushkina, D., Löhr, G., Gwagwa, A., Kamphorst, B. A., Perugia, G., & IJsselsteijn, W. (2023). Social robots and society. In I. Van de Poel, L. E. Frank, J. Hermann, J. Hopster, D. Lenzi, S. Nyholm, B. Taebi, & E. Ziliotti (Eds.), Ethics of socially disruptive technologies (pp. 53–82). Open Book. https://doi.org/10.11647/obp.0366.03
Ponkin, I. V., & Redkina, A. I. (2018). Artificial intelligence from the point of view of law. RUDN Journal of Law, 22(1), 91–109. https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-2337-2018-22-1-91-109
Qurtubi, M. (1964). Al-jami’ al-ahkam al-qur’an, 2nd ed, Dar al-Kutb al-Masriya, Cairo, Egypt. (In Arabic)
Ramezani, M., & Fayzi Derakhshani, M. (2013). Machine ethics: Challenges and approaches to ethical issues in artificial intelligence and superintelligence. Ethics in Science and Technology Quarterly, 8(4), 35–43. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.22517634.1392.8.4.4.7 (in persian)
Sadek, M., Calvo, R. A., & Mougenot, C. (2023). Designing value‑sensitive AI: A critical review and recommendations for socio‑technical design processes. AI and Ethics, 4, 949–967. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-023-00373-7
Safdari Sharabiani, A. (2024). Artificial intelligence: Philosophy, ethics and society. Virtual Space Research Institute, Tehran, Iran. (in persian)
Saifi, A., & Razmkhah, N. (2023). A critique of UNESCO’s draft recommendations on the ethics of artificial intelligence from the perspective of the right to a healthy environment. Public Law Research, 24(78), 9–47. https://doi.org/10.22054/qjpl.2022.63030.2659 (in persian)
Scantamburlo, T., Charlesworth, A., & Cristianini, N. (2019). Machine decisions and human consequences. In K. Yeung & M. Lodge (Eds.), Algorithmic regulation. Oxford University Press.
Sheikh Ansari, M. (1994). Kitab al-mukasib, 1st ed, Sheikh Congress, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Sheikhvand, M. S., Kordalivand, R., Minaei, B., Ashouri, M., & Mahdavi Sabet, M. A. (2023). Artificial intelligence and criminal sentencing: Decision making or decision-making? Comparative Law Research, 27(4), 138–167. (in persian)
Shidiq, M. (2023). The use of artificial intelligence‑based Chat‑GPT and its challenges for the world of education: From the viewpoint of the development of creative writing skills. Proceeding of International Conference on Education Society and Humanity, 1(1), 353–357. https://ejournal.unuja.ac.id/index.php/icesh/article/view/5614
Sobhani, J. (2018). Al-mujiz, 27th ed, Imam Sadiq (AS) Institute, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Stokel‑Walker, C. (2023). ChatGPT replicates gender bias in recommendation letters. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/chatgpt-replicates-gender-bias-in-recommendation-letters
Tabatabaei, M. H. (1989). Principles of philosophy and the method of realism, 6th ed, Sadra Publications, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Tabatabaei, M. H. (n.d.). The beginning of wisdom (n.ed.). Jamia Modarresin, Qom, Iran. (in persian)
Thiqat al-Islam al-Kulaini, M. (1984). Al-kafi, 5th ed, Dar al-Kutub al-Islamiyyah, Tehran, Iran. (in persian)
UNESCO Group of Experts. (2022). Artificial intelligence and the educational system (K. Bazargan, Trans.). Kand o Kav, Tehran, Iran.‌ (in persian)
Van de Poel, I., Frank, L. E., Hermann, J., Hopster, J., Lenzi, D., Nyholm, S., Taebi, B., & Ziliotti, E. (Eds.). (2023). Ethics of socially disruptive technologies: An introduction. Open Book. https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0366
Wahde, M. (2016). Introduction to autonomous robots. Chalmers University of Technology.
Watson, D. P., & Scheidt, D. H. (2005). Autonomous systems. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, 26(4), 368–376.
Wischmeyer, T., & Rademacher, T. (2020). Regulating artificial intelligence. Springer.
Zhang, J., & Zhang, Z. M. (2023). Ethics and governance of trustworthy medical artificial intelligence. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 23(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-023-02103-9
Zhou, K. Q., & Nabus, H. (2023). The ethical implications of DALL‑E: Opportunities and challenges. Mesopotamian Journal of Computer Science, 2023, 16–21. https://doi.org/10.58496/MJCSC/2023/003
Zowghi, D., & Bano, M. (2024). AI for all: Diversity and inclusion in AI. AI and Ethics, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-024-00485-8
Send comment about this article
CAPTCHA Image
Journal of Philosophical Investigations
Volume 20, Issue 55 - Serial Number 55
Articles
Issue 55, Summer 2026
July 2026
Pages 221-242

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics